→ text: Miriam Streitenberger 

 → text: Jil Jaumann, Johanna Roll, Karolin Voßbeck

As mentioned, historical satellite imagery in Google Earth Pro was used to analyze various points of interest (PoI) at different key spots for urban flooding. The points of interest are either crucial human-environment developments contributing to flood risk or to exemplify structural measures for flood mitigation and the change in environment necessary for their construction. The resulting overview maps give the opportunity to interactively explore those selected PoI. Clicking the map on the various points will provide an impression from on site, also as some PoI are further illustrated by embedding street views from Google Maps.

The intention of the remote sensing analysis was to contribute to the understanding of the progress of major structural mitigation and adaptation projects regarding urban flooding. However, due to the nature of the method, the informative value regarding the research questions was found to be restricted given the lack of information on exact locations of specific projects and as one is bound by the temporal and spatial resolution of satellite imagery. Also, due to the lack of reliable documentation in English language, it was often not possible to uncover details to the respective PoI. Further, it must be stressed that the presented points provide only a small selection of locations relevant to urban flooding in the respective city and therefore cannot claim representativity. Nevertheless, the temporal comparison of certain points provides great insight into the changes of the natural respectively urban environment as consequence of structural measures.

Bangkok

Based on the focus of the first research question on specific flood mitigation and adaptation projects, the improvement of the flow capacity of the drainage system was of special interest for Bangkok. In this context, the canals within the city are a very crucial element for naturally draining and diverting water to the sea. However, with urbanization many canals have been filled and sealed to build streets and buildings. Also, there is a lack of slope and low elevation within the city given the coastal location and further human-induced factors, which makes pumping stations and flood gates necessary for draining water into the canal and river system (Komori et al. 2012: 45).

In 2010, the Khlong Lad Pho Floodgate (PoI 1) was opened as a royal initiative by His Majesty Rama IX to improve the direct water flow of the Chao Praya River to the sea shortcutting the 18km long meander of the river. The project further involved the widening of the canal and installation of flood gates. While its construction required the relocation of settlements, the structural measure is a crucial flood protection for the nearby districts (Songkranongklongjai 2014). The construction of the Drainage Water Canal (PoI 2) and connected Drainage Canal Water Bridge (PoI 3) is another measure to protect the Suvarnabhumi Airport from flooding which has been built in the wetland area in Samut Prakan and has shown to be efficient during the flooding 2011 (Barrow n.d.). PoI 4 highlights in temporal comparison the widening of a section of Khlong Bang Keng, one major canal in Bangkok, from which water overflowed on the highway during the flood 2011 (PoI 5). The widening of canals is one measure to increase the flow capacity, while it is restricted by nearby formal and informal settlements which cannot easily be relocated and is often difficult to implement (Assistant Professor AIT 2021).

It was mentioned that flood mitigation in Bangkok is highly dependent on pumping stations for draining the water such as the Bang Sue Pump Station (PoI 6), one station of many for draining water to the Chao Praya river, a station southwest to the airport (PoI 7) or the Phra Khanong Pumping Station (PoI 9). There are many other pumping stations that vary in size and capacity, some of which have been further upgraded following the 2011 flood (Saito 2011). On satellite imagery, however, they are not easily to detect. Flood gates, such as the Lad Pho Floodgate (PoI 1), are another crucial structural element for controlling the water flow within the city. The Phayawik Floodgate (PoI 8) located in Khlong Phaya Weik is another example.

Besides the sample of structural flood mitigation measures within the city, the map also highlights some crucial issues that contribute to the flood problem such as waste clogging canals and pumping stations (PoI 9) or the drastic change in environment as consequence of urbanization (PoI 10).

→ text: Johanna Roll

Kuala Lumpur

The structural measure in Kuala Lumpur which was chosen for our research was the Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel (SMART) because of the innovation and the newness of the project. The SMART was opened in July 2007 because of the Klang River Flood Mitigation Project with the goal to protect the center of the city from flooding. The tunnel is meant to function as both a motorway to ease traffic congestions in the south of the city center and in case of flooding as a flood channel by diverting overflowing water from the Klang river into the tunnels before it can enter the city center (Ithnin 2016, Kamis et al. 2010).

The first four points of interest are based on the components of SMART from the Department of Irrigation and Drainage. The components of SMART include areas which are prone to flooding as well as essential holding ponds and confluences which relate to the function of SMART (Department of Irrigation and Drainage 2017).

Berembang holding pond (PoI 1) is located at the confluence of the Klang and the Ampang rivers. It is the point where water is collected and, when a moderate to prolonged major storm happens, will fill and divert access water into SMART (Department of Irrigation and Drainage 2017). PoI 2 is located at the end of SMART where the water gets released out of the tunnel. Here, the water gets stored in the Taman Desa Storage Reservoir and is slowly released back into the Karayong river. In diverting the water directly from the Klang and Ampang rivers into the Kerayong river, flood prone areas in the city center are avoided. PoI 3 is located at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers, which is also included in the flood prone area. PoI 4 is also located in a flood prone area along the Klang river near the city center. The first four points of interest are essential locations for understanding the function and the progress of SMART; however, the function of SMART can be compromised when maintenance is not done properly or when rubbish blocks the drains prohibiting water to pass into different holding areas. Therefore, it is also essential to have other options for flood management in case one method does not function properly. PoI 5 is an example of a holding pond which is another structural method for flood mitigation. It is also located at the University of Malaya, where many experts who shared their knowledge and experiences with us are located.

→ text: Iris Trikha

Analysis and Interpretation

The following is an analysis and interpretation of the results of conducted interviews about the issue of urban flooding in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur. The interpretations are based on the interviewees’ replies and respectively subdivided according to three leading research questions. For Bangkok six expert interviews were conducted, while in Kuala Lumpur five experts and two lay people were interviewed.

Research Question 1: Actions addressing the issue of urban flooding

The first research question regarding flooding in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur was aimed at how the cities tackle the pressing issue of urban flooding and the progress of major structural projects addressing mitigation and adaptation, specifically the Major Canals in Bangkok and the SMART Tunnel in Kuala Lumpur respectively. Based on their respective expertise, the experts provided different and supplementary information on this topic.

Bangkok

For Bangkok, improving the flow capacity of the drainage system within the city, particularly the major canals, was of greatest interest. Through the interviews, it became clear that a lot was invested in infrastructural measures in order to also benefit economically, for example through dams and the generation of electricity. Predominantly mentioned were the dams north or upstream of Bangkok, pumping stations and huge underground canals in the city. It was striking that these measures were mainly implemented in the BMA, while the BRA (Bangkok rural area) was rather neglected. Due to the geographic location in a delta and the lack of slope, the water drains inadequately. For this reason, there are many pumps installed throughout the city to divert the water.  Especially after the floods in 2011, some measures such as pumping stations and underground canals were significantly rebuilt, expanded or newly implemented.

Bangkok International Airport was constructed on a low-lying drained wetland. To prevent flooding there a drainage canal between the airport and the sea was built that includes a bridge over a coastal road in Bang Pu district between small communities and some shrimp farms. Due to the delta location and heavier rainfall, the sea can rise higher than the land. When the floods are at their peak, the water will not exceed the walls of the bridge and flood the local communities and the airport.

The Kaem Ling project (“monkey cheeks”) is the leading concept for overcoming the issue of flooding in the city. It is a flood protection measure based on the vision of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand (Rama IX). Therefore, water is stored in northern Thailand, slowing down its progress towards Bangkok. This enables it to be used when the rain subsides. For example the design of the Centenary Park at Chulalongkorn University was also inspired by it. The park provides a green space for the city’s residents and at the same time an artificial wetland with a rain garden, a retention pond and an underground water drainage system (ONEP, Environmental Office, interview on 22.02.2021).

Nevertheless, it seems that non-structural projects have not yet really been considered by the government, as economic interests are paramount. Foreign Governments (e.g. Germany and Australia) promote flood prevention and adaptation projects (interview on 22.02.2021).

→ text: Karolin Voßbeck and Johanna Roll

Kuala Lumpur

For Kuala Lumpur the first part of the interviews focused on the expert’s views on the flooding issue and the city’s way of dealing with it. Results were astonishing as opinions were alike on some topics, yet contraditorary on others.

All interviewees agreed that the major issue with flooding in KL is its geographical location in a river catchment and the ongoing urbanization of this hyper sensitive environment. The part of the Klang river that is going through the city of KL is entirely concreted, allowing for no natural drainage of the river’s water thus exaberating overflow in case of extreme rainfall and leading to major floods.  Climate change and its consequences as well as increasing urban densitiy due to population growth have led to an aggravation of problems. Hence, it has become increasingly difficult to mitigate flooding events.

Kuala Lumpur’s main measurements are structural such as the Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel (SMART) and its retention ponds. The SMART tunnel was built as way of reducing traffic in the city center as well as saving it from major flooding events by redirecting overflowing river water. The tunnel operates majorly in three different modes. In mode one the tunnel‘s two levels act as traffic lanes. In mode two the upper level stays open, while the lower level is closed and used as flooding passage. In case of extreme rainfall the third mode is activated closing both levels for motorists – allowing for flood passage once all cars have left the tunnel. The tunnel operates automatically activating modes according to the river’s water levels which is measured by sensors. The Department of Irrigation and Drainage claims that since the implementation of the tunnel there have not been any major floods due to the overflow of the Klang river (interview on 11.2.2021).

Apart from seasonal floods caused by the overflowing Klang River there is also the issue of flash floods that the SMART tunnel cannot mitigate. Flash floods occur when garbage blocks drainages so that in case of excessive rainfall water cannot be directed into the existing drainage system but will flood the city as surface runoff instead. In comparison to the time before the SMART tunnel, the potential 0.3 meters of water that nowadays covers the city center after a flash flood is significantly lower than the 1.5 meters that used to cover the streets after a major river overflow (Engineer at the Department of Irrigation and Drainage, expert for the field civil engineering, interview on 11.2.2021).  

Different experts on the other hand are of the opinion that the SMART tunnel won’t be as efficient in mitigating flooding events in the long run, especially when considering changing rainfall patterns due to Climate Change. In an attempt to find other solutions experts are looking at hydraulic dams upstream from KL that function in a dual way: As electricity sources and water mitigation measurements. These damns are mitigating by delaying waterflow, thus trying to manage the amount of water that goes into the lower parts of the river. Another solution suggests to enlarge existing retention ponds since Kuala Lumpur is running out of space to build new structures. At the same time many of the existing measurements are coming to an end of their capacity demanding innovative and sustainable solutions. Those existing retention ponds could simultaneously be used as recreation areas and/or water resources in drier areas. 

Non-structural measurements on the other hand have not been focussed on as much, yet started to become more and more significant in the adaptation, mitigation and resilience process. There is the river of life campaign that experts briefly mentioned (the project is explained in depth in the Wellbeing chapter). Besides, there are few but important projects trying to educate people living upstream from Kuala Lumpur. These people as guessed by experts may be responsible for a lot of the garbage that damages the SMART tunnel’s sensors so the government pays lay people to report back to them and keep an eye on the river pollution in certain villages.

Research Question 2: Challenges and solutions regarding implementation of measurements

The consecutive question guiding the research was destined to analyze the challenges regarding the implementation of flood mitigation and adaptation projects and how they can be overcome.

Bangkok

The combination of the various problems with the big flood event in 2011, e.g. when the irrigation department decided to store the water in upstream dams instead of periodically releasing it, resulted in the issue of not enough drainage at the time, and the existing waterways in the city were blocked for various reasons including waste or not enough capacity. So that was a series of poor decisions, poor management of the dams and the faulty focus of urbanization before the event of 2011. Similar institutional challenges appear to continue until today, communication should be improved.

It became clear from the expert interviews that the integration of green spaces is seen as an important means of prevention and protective measures against flooding in the national adaptation plan. This should definitely be integrated and considered in urban planning. Not only large-scale structural measures protect the population, but also measures at all different levels should be undertaken to achieve the largest possible base for a rapid adaptation of the metropolis. Currently, when people think of infrastructure, they still think of structural infrastructure. A common suggestion from interviewees was to clarify responsibilities and integrate nature-based adaptation concepts with conventional infrastructure that is already in place. Green spaces would be more beneficial than conventional infrastructure not only for addressing the problem but also for local people. The Centenary Park at Chulalongkorn University is an example for this (Assistant Professor, Asian Institute of Technology, interview on 18.2.2021).

Repetitively, the sewage system is described as inadequate and outdated. In most cases, it is also connected to the waste management and stormwater system, which can lead to further problems during floods such as health issues. The Khlongs are often mentioned, which could contribute greatly to solving the problem. Especially since Bangkok had a functioning network of water drainage with the Khlongs. Yet, they were gradually sealed due to the pressure of rapid urbanization and the accumulation of capital. For this reason it would make sense to return to more natural solutions and a continuous water network and linkages would help (interviews on 17., 18. & 22.2.2021).

The surrounding land is mostly wetland, which could also absorb water. However, this is also being built on to expand the urban building area. An example of this is the Bangkok International Airport, built in 2006, which is one of the largest international airports in Southeast Asia. The swamp was drained for this purpose, and here, too, soil subsidence played a detrimental role. In the interviews it was mentioned that private capital is often invested in infrastructure projects and real estate. Thus, there are conflicts of interest between the government and the needs of the population. Yet, there is still a lack of understanding and awareness that there are also other concepts for tackling the flooding issue in urban environments (e.g. sponge city). To overcome this problem, the importance of holistic urban planning must be understood and ultimately implemented, knowledge from other cities and disciplines must be incorporated, and cooperative work must be undertaken.

Since urban planning in general and the land use plan were introduced so late, too much unplanned urbanization has occurred. The importance of green spaces, the connections of the water network are all somehow still neglected. Further, there is still a lack of consensus especially in politics. This often contradicts the knowledge and satisfaction of many experts. The economic interests of the government are considered too high (interview on 18.02.2021).

→ text: Karolin Voßbeck and Johanna Roll

Kuala Lumpur

Expert interviews showed that the main challenges regarding implementation of flood adaption and mitigation strategies included trash clogging drainage systems, cost, and population density.

An engineer at the Department of Irrigation and Drainage said that, due to the massive amounts of rubbish that is produced by the growing population, drainage systems do not work effectively because they get clogged and instruments which are used to measure flood risk can get damaged. Experts spoke about projects like the River of Life which educates the community about how to take care of the river. In doing this, the river can become cleaner and structural measures can become more effective (interview on 11.2.2021).

Education also plays a big role when it comes to raising awarenes to the dangers, rapidness and consequences of an overflowing river. It is crucial since sirens or government officials trying to warn people prior to an actual flooding event are often ignored – resulting in even more severe consequences and potential deaths. Reasons for this ignorance and indifference are often based on a lack of knowledge and trust. According to some experts villagers often feel like they know the river since they have been living close to it their entire lives, not being aware of climate change and urbanization leading to different rain patterns and changing the intensity of the river’s overflow.

The damage of expensive instruments and the maintenance and unclogging of drains is also extremely costly, yet essential for the further success of structural measures like the SMART tunnel. The cost associated with maintenance and damage is high, and this cost, combined with the cost of construction, makes structural measures like the SMART tunnel less desirable to the local people in Kuala Lumpur because they would like to see governmental funds being distributed differently and more efficiently. Experts suggested improving structural measures which already exist to save on costs. For example, deepening a retention pond is less costly in the long run than constructing new mitigation projects like the SMART tunnel.

Improving structural measures which already exist is also a solution to the challenge of a growing population in an already dense urban area. The population density in Kuala Lumpur is a challenge for the implementation of structural measures because there is an ever-growing disparity of space to develop, and improving already existing structures is just one solution to this problem. As mentioned above the main challenge for Kuala Lumpur is that it exists in a river catchment, so flooding is always an issue. Another expert suggested moving the urban development to other areas outside of the river catchment to reduce the population within the river catchment. This solution, however, comes with its own set of challenges due to people’s sense of place and the homes and families which they have built in Kuala Lumpur.

In accordance to all experts, flooding will always be an issue in the city, hence, focus needs to be on sustainable and lasting solutions that take into account the nature of the city’s sensitive environment, the costs and lack of space for building new mitigation measurements, and the need for implementing more non-structural measurements that will engage and educate people to raise river awareness.

→ text: Jil Jaumann and Iris Trikha

Research question 3: Community engagement

Within the analysis, the third question on the community engagement was perceived as supplementary and optional perspective to the main research questions. The interviewed experts however could provide some valuable insight in how the community is and can be integrated in the respective mitigation project.

Bangkok

Regarding the involvement of the communities, based on the interviews it was found, that a change of mindset must happen. The importance of small projects and the effectiveness of individuals and groups is not yet recognized – this is perhaps because of the huge population in the city. Partly, there is a presumption that at some point the people concerned will stop relying only on the state and organize themselves, do their own things.

The interviewees made clear that community-based, creative projects can provide great value. Everyone can help and make a big difference. One example is a small festival outside Bangkok that aimed to clean up the canals before the monsoon season and rid them of trash. This competition to see which boat ended up collecting the most trash is a fun solution that not only did good, but also raised awareness in the community. The company that initiated this took care of the organization and the small amount of funding (Assistant Professor, Asian Institute of Technology, interview on 2.3.2021).

Kuala Lumpur

Expert interviews did not show a specific community project which is involved in the SMART. However, community engagement was mentioned by some experts as a solution to the problem of waste in the rivers and clogged drainage systems (see Research Question 1 and 2, Kuala Lumpur). While this solution is already seeing some success through projects like the River of Life Campaign, it can be a challenge to get some communities involved. For example, an expert pointed out that the communities who do work to combat flooding are often those whose property values are directly affected. Therefore, resident property owners who are at risk for losing property value due to a flooding event will increase community engagement in effected areas. While this does indeed help to improve the effects of flooding events in some areas, it can seem staged by some researchers.

When speaking with local people living in Kuala Lumpur, they said that flooding does not really feel like such a big issue in their area which could also be a reason for some communities being less involved. If the local people do not directly see the impacts of flooding, they are less likely to become involved in a community project which combats flooding. 

Summary Urban Flooding

Based on the interviews that were conducted as well as the remote sensing analysis, some points can be summarized according to the research questions guiding this working group. The three research questions examined for this working group include the following:

• How do Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur tackle the pressing issue of urban flooding and what is the progress of major structural projects addressing mitigation and adaptation, specifically the Major Canals in Bangkok and the SMART Tunnel in Kuala Lumpur respectively?
• What are the major challenges regarding the implementation, and how can they be overcome?
• How is the community engaged in the respective mitigation projects?

For the investigation of these questions, a mixed-methods approach was used. Historical satellite imagery from Google Earth Pro highlighted certain points of interest for urban flooding in both cities and was useful for addressing the first research question. The qualitative data which was collected from the semi-structured expert interviews had great value for the research, because the interviews could be structured to fit the interviewees expertise, which provided space for all research questions to be addressed. For each city, six interviews could be conducted, and each interview gave interesting insights into further contextual factors depending on the background of the experts.

It was found that the SMART tunnel in Kuala Lumpur is an example of a structural measure that has had short-term success, in that it protects parts of the city center from monsoon floods, however, it does not protect a larger area and does not prevent flash floods due to the prediction time needed to convert the water. The SMART tunnel is also expensive and time consuming to maintain, which can compromise the effectiveness. Although it was found that the tunnel has noticeably reduced the amount of seasonal flooding in Kuala Lumpur, the unpredictability of fluctuating monsoons, and changing rain volumes make the long-term success of structural measures like the SMART tunnel difficult to predict. Furthermore, urban concentration and waste makes the maintenance of drainages and other structural measures essential in order to function properly.

Similarly, improving and maintaining the flow and drainage capacity of Khlongs in Bangkok is an essential structural measure, besides the extension of water pumps, flood gates and drainage tunnels. However, while the implementation of those projects is slowly ongoing, the issue of urban flooding is further aggravated due to the sealing of the canals in favor of roads. Also, as the widening of canals is difficult due to bordering settlements, those measures need to be improved in a long lasting and nature-based way.

Overall, structural measures need to be combined with other structural measures that have already been implemented and also have to be mixed with non-structural measures. For both Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur, it was found that urbanization and increasing population combined with the waste that accompanies development can be overcome with a focus on community involvement. Measures which already exist can be combined with nature-based solutions. International cooperation as well as a good horizontal and vertical cooperation between stakeholders would also be beneficial for an implementation of these solutions.

In encouraging this integrated approach for Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur, governments can approach the issue of flooding in a way that has the potential to be long lasting.

→ text: Iris Trikha and Johanna Roll

Urban Mobilities in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur   

In our group of five students, we were interested in all aspects related to students’ mobility practice. Therefore, we tried to find out more about students’ transportation practice, especially in terms of destinations, distances, and trip purposes, as well as the mobility options they required before the Covid-19 pandemic. To do this, we conducted research in both cities, Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok. We were interested in experts’ opinions, so we interviewed several university professors. We also distributed a questionnaire to university students to gain insight into their perspectives. In the following part we would like to give you an overview about our research design, our results of our research and a short insight in the discussion of the results.

→ text: Chiara Neises and Theresa Gorbach

Research Design and Methods 

Research design
The research followed a mixed methods research design that combined qualitative and quantitative data collection methods in several phases. In phase I the data needed for the subsequent analysis was gathered. The data acquisition was dived into two subphases: In phase Ia secondary data was analyzed to gain a first insight into the topic. In phase Ib, both qualitative expert-interviews and a quantitative survey were conducted. In the second phase the collected data was analyzed to answer the research questions listed before. In the third and final phase, measures for improving the traffic system in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur based on the ideas and suggestions of the experts and students were highlighted.

Methodology
In the expert interviews, we talked to one professor and one external expert in Bangkok and four professors in Kuala Lumpur. For the evaluation of the qualitative data a qualitative content analysis was performed with the MaxQDA software. The quantitative research was realized through a questionnaire in each city. The questionnaires targeted university students in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur. The sampling was done mainly through the snowball method and self-activation, whereby the questionnaires were advertised on internet forums or university websites. Unfortunately, we only got nine answers from Kuala Lumpur and 35 from Bangkok. The collected quantitative data was analyzed using the statistics software SPSS. This means that the data for both cities only reveals a glimpse into a few students lives and does not represent the larger student populations in both cities. We have conducted a quantitative analysis of the data nonetheless as learning how to do such analysis is part of our programme’s task. We ask the reader to keep this limitation in mind when looking at the results and our interpretations.

Another method used in our research was the SWOT diagram. The experts were given a SWOT diagram in which they could enter possible strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) for the transport system in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur.

→ text: Chiara Neises and Theresa Gorbach

In the following section, we will discuss the results of our research. In doing so, we differentiate the results between Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok and revisit our previously presented research questions in the presentation of results.

Our findings

Kuala Lumpur

Students’ Places of Stay

The conducted expert interviews revealed that students in Kuala Lumpur live in roughly equal proportions either within their campuses or in regular quarters of the city. It should be mentioned that some universities have rules that make it mandatory for undergraduate students to reside inside their university campuses. Students that live outside their campus often prefer living areas close to their university campus as well as to a public transportation station (expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 18th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Regional Planning, written interview in Kuala Lumpur in February 2021; expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021).

Student Destinations and Purposes

Regarding the students’ trip destinations, the experts explained that the university campuses in Kuala Lumpur provide many of the goods and services the students need in their daily lives. Delivery services provide additional commodities, even on campus. Due to the abundance of goods and services provided on or near the campuses the students travel to other parts of Kuala Lumpur predominantly to visit recreational destinations such as shopping malls or homes of family and friends. One exception are libraries across the city, which are visited by the students. For the students, living in the city, the university however is the most prominent destination (expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 18th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Regional Planning, written interview in Kuala Lumpur in February 2021; expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). The assessment of the experts aligns well with the answers given by the students in the quantitative survey (see figure 6.5): Recreational purposes such as “leisure activities” or “visit friends or family” account for more than 30% of their trips. The commute to the university is with more than 14 % another important factor in their mobility practice (see figure 6.5). One aspect, that was not brought up directly in the expert interviews, however, are the trips the students make when commuting to part time jobs. According to our survey these trips account for a good 10% percent of the trips done by students in Kuala Lumpur (see figure 6.5).

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Distances Travelled

General information on the distances traveled by the students in Kuala Lumpur could not be obtained through the expert interviews (expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 18th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Regional Planning, written interview in Kuala Lumpur in February 2021; expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). In the quantitative survey however, most students said they traveled about 6 to 15 km daily on workdays (see figure 6.6). This fits the information gathered on the students starting points and destinations: Since most of the students’ needs can be satisfied close by the university, where most of the students live, most of them don’t have to travel far on an average weekday.

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Bangkok

Students’ Places of Stay

The conducted expert interviews revealed that students in Bangkok live in roughly equal proportions either within their campuses or in regular quarters of the city. The students that live outside their campus often prefer cheap accommodations close to their university campus (expert in the field of human geography (recent focus on urbanisation, digitisation and mobilities) interviewed in Innsbruck on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021).

Student Destinations and Purposes

Regarding students’ trip destinations the experts interviewed for Bangkok said that the university campuses provide most of the goods and services the students need in their daily lives. Therefore, students leave their campus or direct living area mostly to visit recreational destinations such as shopping malls or cafes around the city. Students living outside the campus, travel regularly to their university to attend their lectures (expert in the field of human geography (recent focus on urbanisation, digitisation and mobilities), interviewed in Innsbruck on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021). The assessment of the experts aligns well with the answers given by the students in the quantitative survey (see figure 6.7): Recreational purposes such as “leisure activities” or “visit friends or family” account for more than one third of their trips. The commute to the university is with more than 17 % another important motive for travelling (see figure 6.7). One aspect, that was not brought up directly in the expert interviews, however, are the trips the students make when commuting to part time jobs. According to our survey these trips account for a good 11% percent of the trips done by students in Bangkok (see figure 6.7).

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Distances Travelled

Detailed information on the distances traveled by the students in Bangkok could only be obtained through the quantitative survey (expert in the field of human geography (recent focus on urbanisation, digitisation and mobilities), interviewed in Innsbruck on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021). The results of the survey show, that in Bangkok, most students travel up to 5 km daily on weekdays. Those who do not live on campus and thus have a further distance to cover daily travel on average not more than 35 km (see figure 6.8). These results fit the information gathered on the students starting points and destinations: Since most of the students’ needs can be satisfied close by the university, where most of the students live, most of them don’t have to travel far on an average weekday.

Analysis of the students’ modal split

Kuala Lumpur

The expert interviews indicate that the students in Kuala Lumpur use a broad variety of modes of transportation. Most trips are done, according to the experts, by motorized private transport, whereas public transportation and active transport are used more scarcely (expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 18th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Regional Planning, written interview in Kuala Lumpur in February 2021; expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). These broad ideas on the student modal split in Kuala Lumpur are well represented by the results of our questionnaire: Almost 90 percent of the participants surveyed in Kuala Lumpur report using their car “very often” or “often” (see figure 6.9). Public transportation such as trains, the metro or busses are also used by almost all the participants, though not with the same frequency as cars (see figure 6.9). Within the active transport there are big discrepancies in usage. While all the participants walk with various frequencies only around one quarter of the participants use bicycles with any frequency (see figure 6.9).

The great importance of the car is likely due to, among other reason, low prices for fuel and parking as well as the generally very positive attitude in Malaysia towards this mode of transport (expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). Owning and driving a car is considered part of the Malaysian way of life (expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). The nonetheless high importance of public and active transport for the students is presumably a result of the well-developed public transport network and the generally progressive attitude of students in Kuala Lumpur towards sustainable mobility (expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). An exception to this is the bicycle transport. As explained above, students in Kuala Lumpur use bicycles only scarcely. This is possibly due to the hot climate in the city, and the poorly developed bicycle infrastructure (expert in the field of Urban and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th February 2021).

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer6.

Figure 10 shows the modal split in the Klang Valley, which includes the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur in 2013 as calculated based on secondary literature and official statistics (Chiu Chen et al. 2014). The comparison of this data with the information gathered in our research shows that students in Kuala Lumpur use private cars less often than the general population in the Kuala Lumpur area. Unfortunately, the figure by Chiu Chen et al. does not include information on the use of active transportation, which means no comparison with regard to this form of transportation can be made. The Kuala Lumpur students’ lower reliance on cars compared to the general population in the Klang Valley might again be explained in part by the previously mentioned progressive attitudes of students and the well-developed public transportation network in the city. It is here assumed that the Klang Valley consist at least in part of rural environments with only a small public transportation network.

Bangkok

The expert interviews show that the students in Bangkok use a broad variety of modes of transportation. According to the experts most trips are done by motorized private transport, whereas public transportation and active transport are used more scarcely. However, the exact shares of the different modes of transport cannot be read with certainty from the interviews (expert in the field of human geography (recent focus on urbanisation, digitisation and mobilities), interviewed in Innsbruck on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021). A more detailed view is provided by the results of the quantitative survey. These results show that about 80 percent of students claim to walk “very often” or “often”. The car is used “very often” or “often” by 50 percent. The mode of transportation “motorcycle” is used “often” or “very often” by around 35 percent of the participants surveyed. It is noticeable that the bicycle is only used “often” by about 7 percent (see figure 6.11). The importance of the foot-transport is likely due to the small distance between the students’ places of stay and their most important destinations (see chapter Student Destinations and Purposes). Beyond this, due to the limited amount of data we were able to gather, no reliable assumptions about the reasons behind the students’ mode choices can be made.

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Figure 6.12 shows the modal split in Bangkok in 2018 according to to the Global BRT Data (Bangkok, Thailand – Bangkok BRT, 2021). The general population in Bangkok uses private cars far more than the students. Public transportation and active transport however are used less. This is likely due to the students unique living conditions. Since they reside close by their usual destinations, they do not rely on using cars as much as the general public.

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Analysis of the technological navigation tools used by students

Kuala Lumpur

The expert interviewees suggest that students in Kuala Lumpur use applications like Google Maps, Touch and Go, and Waze for navigation. Moreover, they find that there is a particularly strong interest in e-hailing services like Grab and Uber. The navigation apps are used to avoid traffic jams and find the best and fastest routes, but often they are inaccurate in terms of time, which is due to the major problem of traffic congestion. Several interviewees mention that the apps are not sufficiently integrated with the bus or train system. In addition, the use of technological navigation tools and apps is affected by the fact that the many different providers have different apps, which makes planning difficult (experts in the field of Urban Planning and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th and 18th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban and Regional Planning, written interview in Kuala Lumpur in February 2021; expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). From the students’ point of view, the apps were rated differently in comparison to the expert interviews. For example, the app Touch and Go was not named from the students, but they mentioned the apps Moovit and Arah Kiblat. Figure 6.13 shows the rating of the different applications in the quantitative survey.

Even the evaluation of the apps of the surveyed students compared to the apps from the literature differ. Several apps appear in the mobile app ranking that the students did not name (Similarweb 2021a, 2021b). This may be due to students using different apps than the overall population. However, our sample is too small to assess this.

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Bangkok

Regarding the navigation tools in Bangkok, one interviewee mentions the ViaBus application as a much used one in Bangkok. There, the user can select the bus or route and see where the buses are located to see if there was long waiting times (expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021). In Bangkok e-hailing services such as Grab are very common (expert in the field of human geography (recent focus on urbanisation, digitisation and mobilities) interviewed in Innsbruck on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021). In the quantitative survey, the same tools were named as in the expert interviews. Only one interviewee said that tourists and internationals use Google Maps rather than locals (expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021), but the survey reveals that most of students use Google Maps and rated it as “very useful” (see figure 6.14). Other tools that students use are Grab, ViaBus and Line Man Rider.

In the interviews was named the problem that Google Maps is not very accurate with timetables because of the congestion issue. Furthermore, in Bangkok are a lot of different transportation providers, which makes it difficult to combine the information of the transportation system into one app. Thus, the apps are very helpful for some modes of transportation, but not for all (expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021).

The results of our survey differ greatly from the most frequently used navigation apps in Thailand according to the Mobile App Ranking (Similarweb 2021c, 20212d). Only few of these apps are mentioned by our respondents in the questionnaire. The cause may be that students use different apps than the overall population, but to be able to evaluate this more deeply, a larger sample is needed.

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

Identification of the mobility options students dream of

Kuala Lumpur

According to the interviewees, students desire more connected services and a “seamless, cheaper, better quality and integrated system” (expert in the field of Urban and Regional Planning, written interview in Kuala Lumpur in February 2021, pos. 14). They request more comfortable buses, and some students, who are sensitive towards green environment demanded the use of a more environmentally friendly fuel.

Regarding the congestion issue in the city, students are demanding an increasement of the bus-supply especially in the rush hour to avoid delays for classes, and in addition, they are dreaming of an increased service on weekends (expert in the field of Urban Planning and Transport Planning, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Traffic and Transportation, interviewed in Kuala Lumpur on 8th February 2021). In the quantitative survey from the students’ point of view, similar aspects such as the “improvement and expansion of public transport”, like more bus stops and punctuality, as well as “more pedestrians walkways and bicycle lanes” and a more sustainable transport system were mentioned above all (see figure 6.15).

Bangkok

According to the experts the students in Bangkok desire a higher quality of public transport service, as they feel that there is a mismatch in the price-performance ratio. In addition, students would like to have a comfortable and safer transportation system, especially regarding prevention of harassment of women, which makes them feel uncomfortable.

Finally, the tense traffic jam situation was also mentioned as a problem, which should be addressed by the Bangkok Metropolitan authority, but at the same time people prefer their own car over the public transport system and want to keep this freedom (expert in the field of human geography (recent focus on urbanisation, digitisation and mobilities) interviewed in Innsbruck on 17th February 2021; expert in the field of Urban Transport Planning, interviewed in Bangkok on 24th February 2021). In the quantitative survey, similar aspects such as the “improvement and expansion of public transport”, like more bus stops in city and especially in the suburbs, a “better connection between the different modes of transport”, “more and better foot and bike lines”, like better walkability and sun canopies and “less traffic congestions” were mentioned above all. Furthermore, the students demand a more sustainable transport system (see figure 6.16).

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Elisa Kuntner, David Reisenauer

SWOT diagram

The SWOT diagram shows some common results for both cities, as well as some individual challenges each city must deal with: According to our experts, in both cities sufficient public transport services are already provided. Nevertheless, a majority prefers individual vehicles, mostly cars. Therefore, traffic congestion is a huge problem. It causes air pollution and thus environmental harm and serious health problems for the residents. Moreover, the people’s attitudes towards change in the traffic system is a problem. In both cities, there are old guards in power, who do not show enough interest in a change towards more usage of public transport modes and less private car promotion.

In Bangkok, the canals are an important aspect in public traffic planning. Due to historical planning, the city is built around these canals. This is a weakness on the one hand, because the traffic system cannot be changed unrestricted. On the other hand, the canals could be used to decrease the risk of traffic congestion.

In Kuala Lumpur, transportation planning is not stringently designed to promote sustainable modes of transportation such as cycling or car sharing. Cars, as well as fuel and parking spots are disproportionately cheap. Most land use developments happen outside of the public transport corridor. Therefore, there are many people living far away from the next public transport station.

Experts of both cities state an opportunity in a combination of competing operators in just one company, or provide better connection between different public transport stations, as there are currently many operators within each mode of transport. Moreover, improved education in health and environment related topics could lead to more awareness and therefore an increased willingness to use public transport modes.

→ text: Theresa Gorbach

 Ideas for Improvement

Based on the SWOT-analysis and the evaluation of the mobility options the students dream of ideas for the further improvement of the students’ traffic situation in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur were developed:

1.       Create access for public transportation on campus and build new bus-stops on campus.

2.       Improve the schedules of the campus busses (if these exist, otherwise create some). Include the following information:

• When does the next bus arrive?
• Where can I go by taking the busses?
• How long will the ride take?
• What other trains or busses can I catch by taking the bus?
• Better apps to track the busses for information.

3.       Increase costs on parking on campus. Introduce an annual or monthly fee. Encourage students to use public transportation or active transport more.

4.       Reschedule courses away from known rush hours.

5.       Standardization and simplification of the ticketing system for the different transport systems so that the different modes of transport are better linked and so that more people use public transport.

6.       Improve the situation for pedestrians and cyclists so that more people use climate-friendly modes of transport. After all, many students value a sustainable transport system or would like to have one.

7.       Expansion of the public transportation system outside the campus as well.

Now that we have presented our results and addressed the proposed improvements, the following section critically examines them.

→ text: Stefanie Decker

Discussion
As originally planned, the expert interviews would have been used to get an overview of the traffic situation in the regarding cities and the questionnaires would have provided data about the mobility practices of the University students. Unfortunately, methodological problems arose for the expert interviews as well as the quantitative survey. Due to the remote character of the research the number of experts we were able to reach was limited to six for both Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok combined. Thus, the possibilities to make overall evaluations and generalizations are restricted. In our quantitative survey only few students participated. Therefore, the quantitative data is very limited too, as it shows the opinions of only 9 participants in Kuala Lumpur and the 35 participants in Bangkok. This means that the data does not represent a larger student population in both cities.

Keeping the above-named limitations in mind, the data was interpreted as following: Our respondents were strongly “car-dependent” according to their own statements and the ones of the experts. Congestion was mentioned as a serious problem of both cities, caused by the high use of motorized private transport. The participants of our study seem to prefer car over public transport because the public transport network has some disadvantages like comfort, price-performance, safety, and time. Therefore, participants in both cities would like to see an expansion and an improvement of the public transport system. In addition, the use of active transport is at least partially limited by the hot climate and a lack of infrastructure. Both cities are designed primarily for cars, which makes it difficult and time-consuming for pedestrians and cyclists to move around the city. Therefore, the respondents demand better walkability, and an improvement of the foot and bicycle lines. Beside the desire of an improvement of the infrastructure, the students moreover demand a more sustainable transport system.

In both cities, the main services used by our respondents are Google Maps and Grab. Both of them were rated as useful, even if the accuracy of real time tracking is limited by traffic congestion. Otherwise, there are other useful apps from different providers in both cities, such as ViaBus or Moovit, which are used by the University students. The students in both cities wish for a better integration of the various modes of transportations in applications. This should be done in one comprehensive app. Additionally, unified ticked would increase the use of the public transportation, because especially in Bangkok complicated ticket systems were named as obstructive for more intense usage.

According to the respondents a large proportion of students live on or near the campus, presumably to have shorter ways and to avoid congestion. In addition, there are a lot of services offered to students on campus and in the campus vicinity, such as shopping malls, etc., so participants do not have to travel long distances. As a result, students take a subordinated role in transport planning according to the experts.

In conclusion, our research provides some interesting insights into the transportation system and mobility practice of the students in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur. Unfortunately, the results are not representative and have to be seen in the particular situation of remote research in times of worldwide travel restrictions. Further research with a larger sample has to be conducted to deepen and verify the results.

→ text: Stefanie Decker, Theresa Gorbach, Elisa Kuntner, Chiara Neises and David Reisenauer

2nd research question:  
How do students perceive and encounter their environment?

Analyzing the impact of Covid-19 on city life in the two mega cities of Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur, we raised the question: How did students perceive and encounter their environment before and since the start of the pandemic?

After the outbreak of Covid-19 in Thailand, different restrictions were put in place to strike this new situation. Thereby our participants perceived and released a significant change in their daily life. The following quote from Khamna, a student who started to study during the pandemic, shows a strong contrast between wishes and hopes of the past and the afterwards experienced student life.  

Having experienced student life before the start of the pandemic, Juna – a German studies student at the Chulalongkorn University draws a different story. First, she talks about her studies within her German Literature Class, where a foreign lecturer came to the university. The second picture shows her most liked or most important place in Bangkok, at which she had spent a lot of time. 

Both pictures were taken before the Covid-19 Pandemic without restrictions in place.  Back then it was not only possible to meet friends, to go shopping or to restaurants, but also to attend university courses at the campus. Before the pandemic it was also a daily routine to use public transportation to commute to the university. Below, Juna is giving some insights into her commuting routines. 

While daily commuting to university and meeting friends was part of everyday life before the pandemic, it was the exception during periods of increased restrictions. Due to the closure of universities and the shift of teaching to the digital space, participants spent more time alone, at their family’s place, or sometimes even moved back to their families to save money. Khamna an engineering student from Bangkok for example states: “Like for one month I didn’t speak with my friends at all, like something like that, or my parents too because I have to study and (…) I have to work for my family business too”. Faziah (KL), a PhD student and mother of three children, shed light on the situation about having kinds while studying:  

Having therefore experienced the pandemic not only while living directly inside the city, but also in the periphery, participants perceived the everyday life of the latter as safer and less restricted. Faizah (KL) raises the objection to live on the countryside: 

These severe changes in everyday life had an impact on physical and mental health for some participants and a significant influence in how participants were moving through the city. Sebastian , a former PhD student from Bangkok, describes a change in his daily transportation routine:  

Overall, during Covid-19 visiting busy public places and facilities, spending time in malls, or using public transport became limited. It has been heavily associated with a potential Covid-19 infection. Natrada (BK), a master student in public health, states: “How do I feel? I feel worried, especially when there is someone who cough or sneezing near me”.  

Besides the impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic, participants agreed on future town planning aspects and wishes for the future. Frequently mentioned keywords were: Crowded public places and public transportation services, an everlasting rush hour leading to time-consuming commuting, frequent periods of very problematic air quality. Sebastian comments: 

Faizah elaborates Kuala Lumpur as following:  

In the end it can be noticed that participants are very much aware of the effect of Covid-19 related restrictions to their personal space and daily life. The interaction with the digital space became more important and imminent, leading in many cases to self-isolation and a reduction of non-digital gatherings. At the same time a retreat to the outskirts of cities or the home of family members can be observed. For many participants they seemed to be less crowded and therefore a safer place in pandemic times.

→ text: Johannes Melchert and Jan Misera

3rd research question: Reassessment of personal needs 

As illustrated above, the way students experience the urban space they live in has changed tremendously since the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. This altered sense of place directly affects their interaction in public space, emphasizing how much the pandemic impacts the specific relation between space and place for young adults such as our interviewees. In light of these changed conditions, we – honestly – expected this shift to become a fundamental disruption of the way young people such as our interviewed students imagine future city life to be. We therefore finally raised the question: How does this crisis lead to a reassessment of their personal needs regarding the city and urban spaces?

Interestingly, this truly new spatial experience they describe to us, their thoughts, feelings, and remarks regarding city life under Covid-19 – none of it points out explicitly to the need of a fundamental reassessment of city planning. But we do not want to state that the disruptions and changes our participants experienced may not lead or have led to a reflection about personal needs regarding urban space. Especially since our data corpus mainly consists of spoken or written words by people (participants and researchers) whose mother tongue is not English and since our question for reassessment of personal needs is complex, we do not want to over-interpret out data. Nevertheless, several participants expressed demands for changes in city planning and development that already existed before the pandemic. And our impression is that the current crisis reinforced and intensified awareness regarding those demands. These demands shall be presented in the following, clustered in two categories:

1. Improving public services

The lack of basic urban infrastructure came back strongly to the attention of many inhabitants of Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur when the Covid-19 pandemic hit their cities. Especially the importance of a functioning health care system was stressed by Kyro, an engineering student from Bangkok: “More hygiene at public transportation and seminar […]. Hospital should provide […] faster examination and no queuing anymore.” For sure, it is the Covid-19 pandemic which recently reminds us that health services are a crucial component of public services. But a functioning health system is needed constantly, not only in times of a pandemic.

Moreover, public transportation services need to be further expanded. Sebastian, a former PhD Geography student, gave us insight in how much the Bangkokian city planning for instance already invested in this sector: “When I arrived the first time in Bangkok, it was in 2014, there were only two BTS lines. And now […] I don’t know how many there are. So, there was the green and the dark green [BTS line]. […] Now, there’s the yellow one, the purple one, the golden one just opened last – I think in December.” But still these efforts are not enough to handle the masses of people moving through the city properly. It is also Sebastian who tells us how it usually looks like when he takes the bus in rush hour times: “[Y]ou can stand here in the middle and you don’t need to hold the strap or the rails, because you [are] kind of squeezed there and [it is] packed, full of people and you cannot fall down anyway.” Given this uncomfortable situation of overcrowded public transport systems, the Covid-19 pandemic led to a certain fear of people to use them at all; to quote an expert on mobility, Dr. Gobi Krishna, whom we asked about the situation in Kuala Lumpur: “Rail transport in Kuala Lumpur: they used to receive 1.3 to 1.5 million passengers […] per month. During the MCO [Movement Control Order] they […] receive […] less than 200,000.” But which kind of alternatives people do have except public transportation? Using cars or motor scooters merely shifts the problem to environmental pressures. One possible solution offered by the theoretical concept of the “compact city” (Jenks & Jones, 2010) suggests decentralizing public functions and services. The larger the city, the farther away urban facilities can be. But an efficient urban land use aiming to optimize access to basic public functions and services for city residents such as recreation or shopping in walkable distance not only reduces high densities and urban sprawl, but also benefits the environment and wellbeing of citizens. Sustainable forms of transportation would become more attractive and social as well as cultural vitality would be enhanced through an enhanced accessibility (Jenks & Jones, 2010, p. 2). This approach would also fit the expectations of our interviewees: “It should not only be shopping, it can be also health, recreation, parks…“, adds Sebastian when asked for possible improvements in city management. This leads us to the second strong demand our participants expressed in regard to future city development.

2. Increasing amount and better allocating public spaces

Decentralization must be understood not only in terms of services and functions a city offers its residents. It also concerns public spaces. Our interviewees expressed different reasons for more and better allocated public spaces. Faizah, PhD student in Kuala Lumpur and mother of three children, states: “I would like my city to be safe, children friendly or family friendly.” In this context she explains her motives for this demand: every time she wants to spend time with her children in a park, she needs to use a car to go there as parks are either not in close distance or as there are no proper sidewalks for pedestrians. “It’s not walking friendly […]”, she criticizes, “so, it’s more convenient to drive your car and park. But then again, parking is also limited. […] [or] I would just call a cab or grab car. […] but then you have to pay. I think it’s quite pricy […] Um, but then that’s the best option”. Although Faizah has access to a car and the financial resources to pay a grab-taxi she would still prefer to have parks in the city which are in walking distance. Additionally, for people who cannot pay a grab-taxi or do not own a car access to green spaces is difficult. Thus, it is not only about the amount of public spaces but also about their allocation and, finally, their accessibility.

Another conceivable approach to solve this problem is proposed by the “15-minute city concept” which calls for fostering decentralization in a specific way: the concept addresses the shift from a car-based form of transportation in cities towards walking and biking as primary mode of transportation. According to this concept, if public spaces and services were distributed in a way that they are reachable within 15 minutes by foot or by bike, several positive implications could emerge like the improvement of health and well-being or the increase of socioeconomical equity (Luscher, 2020).

What can we learn from the Covid-19 crisis, then?  

In a certain way, the abrupt and disruptive shock of the Covid-19 pandemic reminds us globally why resilient urban planning is important. Even before the outbreak of the current pandemic, several scholars (e. g., Ahern (2011); Reed et al. (2013); Syphard et al. (2013)) emphasized the need for urban planning enhancing resilience and to move towards adaptive planning and social learning strategies, for instance, to better respond to pandemics. And when analysing the impact of Covid-19 this need is underlined once again clearly.  

Over the last year, many governments in Southeast Asia intended to meet the needs of urban inhabitants and improve urban governance (Sheng, 2010). To achieve this, they changed their practices of governance towards decentralization through privatization. This shift occurred, among other things, because of a growing economy and growing as well as more diverse demands of the urban population. Although it aimed at improving urban governance, it did not achieve that (Sheng, 2010). According to Sheng, only a substantial elite benefits from current privatization processes aiming to decentralize functions and services. Nowadays, urban development decisions are taken by public-private partnerships, with an emphasis on profitability and urban entrepreneurialism (Sheng, 2010). A resilient urban planning approach instead gives city inhabitants a central role in planning practice. Schappenlehner-Kloyber and Penker (2016) even argue that as many stakeholders as possible should participate in the planning process as early as possible. Our field study confirmed that opinion. We interviewed students in the city of Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur and their high interest in our study work demonstrated their general willingness to share their personal ideas for city development. Faizah for example explicitly states that her interest in city planning and development was the reason why she agreed to talk to us. However, none of them participates in city planning processes of these two cities so far – or to use Faizah’s words: “[…] other people are talking about how to improve Kuala Lumpur […]”. Based on their personal sense of place before and during the pandemic, we argue that city residents want to get involved in urban planning processes and that their perspectives are worth to be taken into account when developing city planning strategies in the future. 

→ text: Carlotta Schlosser and Richard Kempert